Waterborne paints A review of their chemistry and toxicology and the results of determinations made during their use

Waterborne paints: A review of their chemistry and toxicol ogy and the results of determinations made during their use. Scand J Work Environ Health 13 (1987) 473-485. This work presents information on the composition of waterborne construction paints used in Denmark, data from determinations of chemicals evaporating from paints applied with a brush or roller, and the toxicology of these chemicals. Seven product types were selected to illustrate the composition of the paints. Measurements at two workplaces were used as models for the work environment during painting. Evaporating chemicals were collected on Tenax TN"' and analyzed with capillary column gas chromatography after thermal desorption. In smudging work, waterborne paints may result in skin irrita tion and/or sensitization when safety precautions are not taken. Irritation of the mucous membranes may be expected if airing is not sufficient. This irritation may lead to headache mediated by trigeminal nerve stimulation. No other health hazards (eg, brain damage) are expected. The available information indicates that waterborne paints are a clear improvement over traditional paints which use white spirit as the main solvent.

In the I970s there was a substantial change in the consumption of construction paints in Denmark. Before this time, most paints were formulated with white spirit as the main solvent. Today more than 90 070 of construction paints are waterborne. The reasons for this change may have been the public discussion of the possibility of brain damage due to solvent exposure, the technological developments, the information campaigns of the trade unions, and the regulation by the Danish Labour Inspectorate. The change has resulted in some further advantages, eg, fewer risks of fire or explosion and a decreased emission of solvents to the environment.
The present review was initiated as a part of an investigation of whether or not health problems might be expected from work with waterborne construction paints. It is a compilation of a Danish report (21), and it deals with (i) the composition of waterborne paints according to specifications from the Danish manufacturers, (ii) the toxicology of the chemicals contained in these paints, with the main emphasis on effects related to exposure to these types of products, and (iii) analysis of chemicals evaporating from waterborne paints under work conditions. I Danish National Institute of Occupational Health, Hellerup, Denmark.

Review of the chemistry and the toxicology of waterborne paints
Chemistry oj waterborne paints The following seven waterborne product types were examined: acrylic latex paint (flat), acrylic latex paint (semi-gloss), heavy-bodied latex wall paint, latex enamel, latex primer (micro disperse), latex wall paint, and sealing waterborne paint (for ceilings). They were chosen from the Danish market in collaboration with, among others, the Danish Painters' Union, representatives of the Danish paint industry, and the Danish National Institute of Occupational Health. These product types represent 90 0,10 of the waterborne paint used in Denmark when binders, gloss, consumption, and technical properties are considered. Acrylic latex paints are high in quality. The binders are acrylic copolymers. They may be used on both interior or exterior surfaces. Latex wall paints are of lower quality. The binder may be acrylic copolymers, but many products use other binders, eg, vinyl acetate copolymers. They are only used on interior surfaces. Heavy-bodied latex wall paints have a high content of pigments. The latex enamels are high in quality, with acrylic copolymers as binders. They usually have a high gloss. The latex primers are not pigmented. The sealing waterborne paints use alkyds as the binder, possibly combined with an acrylic copolymer.
Special product types with, eg, epoxy and aziridine hardeners have been excluded from this review.
With the aid of the Danish Paint, Varnish and Lacquer Industry's Association, specifications for paints of the seven product types were retrieved from Table 1. Minimum and maximum co nc entrati ons of the raw materials in the paints. (% w/w percentage by weight) Chem ical compound Cont ent (% w/w) Table 3. Surfactants used in waterborne paints , as, eg, surtactant s, anti foam ing agents, protective coll oids, and thi ckeners.   the firms in this association. A total of 34 specification s were collected . Raw material manu facturers and suppliers reported the chemical composition of the 34 products. All products exam ined had code numbers 00-1 or 0-1 (13).
The general composition of the seven product types is given in table I. Many of the zeros shown in the table are due to the latex primers, which do not usually contain , eg, pigments, plasticizer s, and driers. The six other product types contain most of the chemical compounds mentioned . Eight paints were selected for the chemical anal yses, which were carried out at the Scandinavian P aint and Printing Ink Research institute. Only minor deviations were found between the contents reported in the specifications and the results obtained in the analyses . The chemicals/raw materials reported in the specifications are listed in tables 2-7 . The con tent found in the paints and the chemical abstra ct service number (CAS-No) are also given, when known .
The biocides (fungicides , preservatives) are used for in-can preservation, and they are listed in table 2. Biocides are normally used as commercial formulation s, which may contain up to four of the mentioned compounds.
Surfa ctants include anti foaming agents and prot ective colloids/ thickeners. We were not able to list all info rmation on this type of compound because, eg, the latex producers were not willing to disclose the content of the surfactants used in their lati ces. The Table 5. Mon om ers used fo r latex prod uct io n. The ty pical amo unt of monomers in the lat ic es accordi ng to the manufactu rers. (% w/w = perce nt age by weig h t, CAS·No = ch emical abstract numb er) Table 6. Coalesc ing solvents/cosolvents used in waterborne paints as co alesc ing solvents, co solv ents, or as part of raw m aterials. (% w/w = percen tag e by wei ght , CAS-No = chemic al abstract service number) a Versat ic 10'" is a mixture of branched ac ids with nine ca rbon atoms.
sur factants given in table 3 are mainly those added by the paint ma nu facturers. To be able to compare different prod ucts , we onl y collected specificati ons for white paints. Table 4 lists the white pigments used.
Mo st of the binders in the examined paints were o f the latex type. Latices are made by emulsion polymerization of the monomers dispersed in wate r as dr opl ets. Th e pol ymeriza tion takes place within th ese droplets. The polymerization is initiat ed by free-radical generato rs (eg, benzo yl peroxide) (32). Accor ding to the producers, th e molecular weight of the pol ymers is app roximately I 000 000. Several different mon omer s are used for the pol ymerization (ta ble 5). The latices may contai n ammo nia [eg, 0.3 percent by weight (070 w/w)], form aldehyde (eg, 0.06 % w/w) or oth er bio cides (eg, mixture of isoth iazoli non es), an d su rfacta nts. Th ey may a lso co ntain a sma ll amou nt of a pol ymerizati on inhibitor or initia to r [eg, p-m eth oxy phenol (CAS-No 150-76-5), hydroquinone (CAS-No 123-31-9), or benzoyl peroxide (CAS-No 522-66-7)].
Al kyds are oil-mo dified pol yester resins. Th ey are pol ymer s fo rmed by the reaction of pol ybasic acids, pol yhydr ic alcohols, and mon obasic fatty acids (32). Th e pol yba sic acid may be ph thalic acid , the alcoh ol ma y be pentaerythritol , and the fatty acids may come from ta ll oil. However man y other substances are used (32). The examined alk yds were emulsions, except fo r o ne, which had an alkyd so lubilized with tri eth ylamine (CAS -No 121-44-8).
Solvent s are ad ded to th e pain ts for ma ny reason s, eg, to aid in film formation (32). Tabl e 6 lists th e coalescing solvents /cosolvents used.
Sodium benzoate and sodium nitrite were used in a few paints as corrosion inhibitors and as biocides.
In one product sodium nitrite was added as a salt with triethanol amine ("triethanol nitrite") (0.25 % w/w) as a corrosion inhibitor (CAS-No unknown).

Toxicology 0/ chemicals in waterborne paints
The toxicologic evaluation of waterborne paints was based on a review of more than 1 500 referen ces, of which 686 were determined to be valuable and were included in the Danish report (21). In the present review, only the most important references are included . Because of difficulties in determining a noeffect level for, eg, carcinogens and teratogens, chronic effects , with the exception of allergy, have been considered in the Discussion .
Biocides. Most of the biocides (table 2) are skin sensitizers (2, II, 28,30,33). Only. one of the biocides (mixture of chlormethylisothiazolinone and methylisoth iazolinone) proved capable of causing sensitization in the concentrations used (approximately 0.003 % w/w) (10). These chemicals have been described in detail elsewhere (22). Formaldehyde is absorbed in the upper respiratory tract during inhalation, and possibly also through the skin (30). A few of the other biocides may be absorbed through the skin (20,40).
Pigments/e xtender pigments. Pigments and extender pigments (table 4) probably do not involve a health hazard when paints are brushed and rolled on.
Binders. The latex binder s are copolymers of two to five monomers, eg, butyl acrylate, acrylic acid, and styrene. The contents of monomers in latices are usually stated to be less than 0.3 070. Some producers of latices have given more detailed information. (See  table 5.) The contents listed agree with the results of the determinations made in two workplaces in that butyl acrylate was the only monomer determined in the air of the workplaces. (See workplaces I and 2 in the section Representative Workplaces .) Styrene was 476 determined in a workplace not mentioned in this paper.
Most of the monomers have a pungent smell, and they may contribute to irritation of the mucous membranes (25,44). Some monomers, eg, butyl acrylate and 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, are skin sensitizers in concentrations as low as 0.1 % (27). The monomers are absorbed through the lungs and through the skin (44).
The latices may contain biocides (eg, 0.06 % formaldehyde or isothiazolinones), surface active ingredients, and ammonia. The corresponding effects are listed in the following sections .
Polymerization initiators and inhibitors are presumably found in very low concentrations. They are not expected to present health hazards in these paints . However, they are irritating to the skin and the mucous membranes, and they are sensitizers (I, 37, 38, 48).
Amines. The amines used in the seven product types may smell (47), and they may irritate the skin and the mucous membranes (I, 36,45). Triethylamine is a sensitizer (8). The amines may be absorbed through the skin, as well as through inhalation (I , 8, 50).
Plasticizers. Dibutyl phthalate may smell (17). Health hazards may not be expected from this compound.

Determination of air contaminants during the use of waterborne paints
Measurements of the various substances in the ambient air during the use of the aforementioned waterborne paint s were made under normal work conditions. The analyses of the organic vapors were performed with a gas chromatograph (Hewlett-Packard 5711)with a flame ionization detector. Two capillary columns were used (Chrompack SIL 19CB and CP 57CB). The column temperature was 30°C for 2 min, followed by an increase (4°C/min) to 200°C. This temperature was held for 16 min. The gas chromatograph was coupled to an automatic thermal desorber unit (Perkin-Elmer ATD-50). This method will be described in detail elsewhere (Wolkoff et ai, unpublished results).
The compounds were identified by a central computer (Hewlett-Packard 1000) using a library containing more than 300 compounds occurring in indoor air or in workplaces. The identification was based on retention time indices on the two columns.
If white spirit was present in the paint, all unidentified peaks were classified as white spirit components.
As no universal adsorbent or universal detector exists, the concentration of the very volatile organic compounds (eg, acetone), the nitrogen-containing compounds (eg, the amines), and the halogen-containing compounds must be accepted as minimum values.
Ammonia. Ammonia was determined with indicator tubes (Drager ammonia 5/a). Depending on the concentration of ammonia, 10 to 50 strokes with a Drager gas detector pump were used.
In workplace 1 the walls in a corridor with a ground area of 35 m' and a volume of 54 m' were painted twice with a total of 15 I of latex wall paint during 3.25 h. Heavy-bodied latex wall paint had been applied a few days earlier in adjoining rooms. Some acrylic latex paint I (semi-gloss) was also applied at the end of the day, and it thus contributed to the measured air concentration. The work was repair work.
Workplace 1 was characterized by a high level of formaldehyde. The concentration increased during the painting from 40 to 133 010 of the Danish occupational exposure limit of 0.4 mg/m' (ceiling value). Formaldehyde may have originated from the formaldehyde releaser 1-(3-chlorally1)-tetraazaadamantan hydrochloride or from the binder. After 4.5 h of painting, ammonia, white spirit, and butyl acrylate contributed with 16, 13, and 4 %, respectively, of the Danish occupational exposure limits, which are 18, 600, and 55 mg/m', respectively. Figure 1 describes the volatile chemicals during and after the application of the latex wall paint. A more detailed description of workplace 1 is given in the appendix.
In workplace 2 four different paints were applied during 3 d in one room (sitting room) in an apartment, in which four adjacent rooms were also painted. The work was repair work. The applied paints were (i) sealing waterborne paint (for ceilings), 41 (day 1); (ii) latex primer, micro disperse, 1.81 (day 1); (iii) latex Table 8. Data on the vapors measured by personal sampling during the application of waterborne paints in 15 workplaces (21). (% w/w = percentage by weight) a Danish limits in 1984 (4). b According to producers the concentration in the binders was probably in the range of 0.02-0.06 %. C In one of the list of ingredients, the chemical was not mentioned, but it was found in the air. d The value, as a rule, is unknown. The chemical may come from formaldehyde and formaldehyde-releasing compounds used as biocides or from other raw materials. e 2,2,4-Trimethyl pentane-1,3-diol monoisobutyrate.
Formaldehyde. Formaldehyde was collected in two impinger absorbers connected in series, each containing 10 ml of distilled water. A Dupont pump model P-25OO with a flow rate of 1 l/min was used. The sampling time was 30 min. Immediately after the sampling, 10ml of Hantzsch reagent was added to each impinger. The samples were then stored in the cold. They were analyzed within one week with the acetyl acetone method (7). No attempts were made to analyze other aldehydes. A small amount of hexanal was found once by gas chromatography (0.1 mg/m') in the apartment mentioned later in relation to workplace 2.
Temperature and relative humidity. Temperature and relative humidity were determined with a Bacharach sling psychrometer.
Representative workplaces. Measurements of the substances in question were made in a total of 15 workplaces (21). Table 8 presents the results. Two representative workplaces were chosen to illustrate the composition of the organic vapor phase of the air in the work area during and after the application of the waterborne paints. Thus the first example (workplace 1) describes the application of a latex wall paint in one room. The second example (workplace 2) describes the application of four different paints in one room over 3 d in one apartment, where the other rooms were also painted. The volatile chemicals in the canned products of the applied paints can be found in table 9.   tive limits (100, 600, and 18 mg/rn", respectively). The hygienic load (ie, the percentage of the occupational exposure limit for mixtures) was 85 % (60 % when formaldehyde was not included). The latex wall paint resulted in an increase of the hygienic load from 43 to 72 % (from 16 to 48 % when formaldehyde was not included). Formaldehyde and ammonia were the main contributors. The latex primer (micro disperse) and acrylic latex paint II (semi-gloss) mainly contributed with compounds for which an exposure limit had not been established. Figure 2 describes the volatile chemicals in the work environment during the 3 d.
A more detailed description of workplace 2 is given in the appendix.

Effects on the skin and mucous membranes
Irritation of the skin due to direct contact with the paint. All of the evaluated paints contained several chemicals that have been shown to irritate the skin. Although none of these chemicals occurred in concentrations high enough for the individual substances to cause irritation to the skin, the possibility of irritation due to a mixture of the chemicals cannot be excluded. Some examples of the skin-irritating chemicals are monomers from binders leg, butyl acrylate (44)], coalescing solvents/cosolvents leg, white spirit (23)], biocides leg, formaldehyde (30)], surfactants leg, polyphosphates (I, 31)], and ammonia (I, 36). According to Danish legislation (13) protectors for the hands, face and/or body are not obligatory when these types of products are applied with a brush or roller. All of the paints had code numbers 00-1 or 0-1. Since paints tend to splash when a roller is used, gloves, and possibly facial protection, should always be used during this type of work.
a According to the list of ingredients. b Only monomers found in the air during the work with the waterborne paints are mentioned. c Determined by the Scandinavian Paint and Printing Ink Research Institute. d Determined as expected contribution from formaldehyde releasers and binders.
wall paint, 3.5 I (day 2); and (iv) acrylic latex paint II, semi-gloss, 0.85 I (day 3). A small amount of acrylic latex paint III (0.1 I) was also applied in the room on the third day. Among the applied paints, the sealing waterborne paint seemed to contribute the most to the level of contaminants in the workplace air. The main reason was the evaporation of ethylene glycol butyl ether. This compound was measured in concentrations of up to 40 070 of the Danish occupational exposure limit (120 mg/m'), Triethylamine, dipropylene glycol methyl ether, and ammonia reached 5-10 % of their respec-

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Irritation of the mucous membranes. Irritation to the mucous membranes may result either from contact with the paint or from chemicals evaporating from the drying paint. Irritation due to contact with the paint is comparable to the conditions mentioned for irritation of the skin. During drying, all of the evaluated paints released one or more chemicals that were irritating to the mucous membranes.
During painting work only ammonia and formaldehyde were found in the air in concentrations high enough to lead to irritation of the mucous membranes. None of the other chemicals individually cause irritation. However, irritation due to a combined action of the chemicals cannot be excluded.
Irritation of the mucous membranes may result in headache, through irritation of the trigeminal nerve, and may be prevented or reduced through ventilation/airing or the lowering of the concentration of chemicals irritating to the mucous membranes. As an example, the for maldehyde expos ure cou ld be lowered if the formaldehy de-releasing compo unds were substituted with a noneva po rating biocide. No respiratory pro tect ion is required by the Danish a uthorities for work with these types of products (13).
Allergy. Wat erbo rne pain ts contain several sensitizing agents, eg, acrylic mo nomers (27) and biocides (II ,30). O nly a few o f these agents are ab le to sensitize in the concentrations used, bu t it is not possible to po int out " safe " concentratio ns for sensitizing compounds. To protect against sensitization, skin contact with paints should be avoided. (See the section on irritation to the skin.) Health hazards after absorption Absorption. Some of the chemicals may be absorbed through the skin, but this possibility can be prevented if skin contact is avoided. The absorption of chemicals as vapor through the skin can be considered" negligible.
All of the vapors found at the workplaces can be expected to be absorbed when inhaled. The absorption through this route will be reduced if the rooms are aired or if or less volatile chemicals are used.
According to Danish legislation, no respiratory protection is required when these products are applied with brushes or rollers (13).
Acute health ef f ects. With the exception of skin irritation, sensitization, and headache (due to irritation), waterborne paints applied with bru shes and rollers do not present acute health hazards such as, eg, central nervous depression.
Irritation and headache. We carried out two questionnaire surveys (unpublished results). Irritation of the nose and the eyes, as well as headache, were frequently reported symptoms resulting from work with waterborne paints. Waterborne paints contain several chemicals which irritate the mucous membranes, but the cau se of headache is less clear. The same has been found at workplaces where related substances have been used . Among 52 male printers in Denmark symptoms including irritation of the nose, the eyes, and the throat and headache were significantly more frequent than among 52 referents not exposed to organic solvents. If the substances have additive effects (eg, toluene, decane, and ethanol), the average hygienic load would have been 0.36, ranging from 0.0 to 1.0 (5). Among 188 worker s exposed to trichloroethylene, headache was a frequently reported symptom (6).
The trigeminal nerve is responsible for sensory irritation in the eyes and nose when stimulated by chemicals such as formaldehyde, ammonia, and acrolein (39). The receptor of this sensory irritation is known to some extent. It contains a nucleophilic group, eg, a thiol group (-SH), reacting with chemicals with activated C-C double bonds, eg, the structure C = C-C-O known from, eg, acrylic monomers. Alpha and beta unsaturated aldehydes and formaldehyde are also highly potent when reacting with this nucleophilic group (39). A group with hydrogen-donor activity in the receptor can account for the adsorption of, eg, alcohols , ketones, and esters. A disulfide bridge in the receptor seems to be the adsorption site for alk ylbenzenes (39).
Headache (cluster headache) may be due to axonal reflexes in the trigeminal nerve (3). Cluster headache may be initiated by, eg, kallikrein, 5-hydroxytryptamine, prostaglandins, viral infections (3), trigeminal neuralgia (12), and the release of the substance called P from trigeminovascular neuron s to the cerebral blood vessels (34). Chemical irritation of the nasal mucos a (trigeminal nerve) may initiate potent respiratory and cardiovascular reflexes resulting in, eg, slowing of the heart rate and variable changes in blood pressure (16). Drummond & Lance (15) showed that the increase in blood flow to the brain in cluster headache was probably due to vasodilatation mediated through the trigeminal nerve . According to Kohl (29), vasodilating drugs are the most frequent cause of druginduced headache.
In a review describing headache in workplaces, benzene derivates, organic solvents (eg, trichloroethylene , "paint vapors"), and formaldehyde were mentioned as possible causes of headache (35). Knowledge of the trigeminal nerve functions makes it possible to assume that headache due to work with waterborne paints may be caused by trigeminal stimulation. Thus headache might be caused by many of the evaporating chemicals , eg, formaldehyde, ammonia, acrylic monomers, alcohols (eg, glycols and glycol ethers), esters, and benzene derivatives , eg, as components in white spirit. Further investigation is required to explain the suggested coherence between waterborne paints and headache.
Chronic health effects. Knowledge on the development of chronic health effects (eg, cancer, teratogenic effects) as a result of work with waterborne paints is inadequate, but the risk is considered limited. All of the investigated paints contain at least one chemical suspected to cause chronic effects. It is difficult to point out no-effect levels for these chemicals, but lowering the dosage is always expected to lower the risk.
In conclusion, the information regarding the toxicity of the substances in waterborne construction paints indicates that the use of these paints is considered a clear improvement over the use of traditional paints with hydrophobic organic solvents, which in Denmark contain large amounts of white spirit. However, some waterborne products can probably be altered to improve the health characteristics even further. No health hazard (eg, brain damage) seems to be present for the inhalation of volatile chemicals from waterborne paints. Irritation of the mucous membranes may occur however when airing is insufficient.
Headache may be a health problem arising due to waterborne products and may be mediated through the trigeminal nerve.
Gloves, and possibly facial protection, should be used in connection with this work to prevent irritation of the skin and sensitization.
The chronic effects of chemicals in combination have not yet been sufficiently investigated. In this respect waterborne paints do not differ from traditional paints.
Generally speaking, the examined paints seem reasonably formulated with respect to health risks (see tables 1-7). However, the health risks could be reduced if the follo wing modifications were made: Formaldehyde should be avoided. The evaporation of formaldehyde from paints sho uld be lowered because of, eg , smell and irritation . A lt ern a tives could be a formaldehyde releaser (for in -can preservation) or nonvolatile biocides. The co n tent of monomers, isothiazolinones, turpentine, cobalt, and zirconium salts sho uld be avoided or minimized to prevent the possibility of sensitization. Ether s of et hy lene glycol sho uld not be used in order to a void effect s on reproduction and on blood characteristics . A ltern at ives co uld be, eg, ethers of propylene glycol. Corrosion inhibitors with so dium nitrite sho u ld be a voided, especially when the possibility exists of a formation of nitrosamines. Surfactants should be chosen critically, and the content of ammonia should be minimized to prevent irritation of the skin and the mucous membranes . The content of white spirit and other volatile solve nts should be minimized to reduce the concentrations o f solvents in the workplace a ir.

Workplace 1
Workplace I wa s being repaired. The walls a nd the woodwork we re painted ye ar s before, bu t no one kn ew the product types that had been used.
The room was a corridor with 13 doors. The ground a rea was 34.6 rn", the vo lu me o f th e ro om was 54 m ' , and the painted a re a was a p p roxim a te ly 70 m ' (wall s) .
Three a d j acen t rooms had a lrea dy been painted with a heavy-bodied la tex wa ll pa int during the last few days . T he doors to these ro oms were closed du ring the measurements. El ev en doors were usually closed , and painting , the temperature wa s normal (20°C) . The re la tive humidity was 44 0/0 , and ve n t ila tio n was poor. St ationary sam p ling was made in t he middle of the ro om at a hei ght of I m .
The chronological data for the me a surements a re as follo ws:  The room was poorly ventilated, the temperature was normal , and the relative humidity was low before the painting was starte!. Before the application of the latex wall paint, low con centrations of propylene glycol, butyl acrylate, Texanol '", and white spirit were measured . However, a relatively high concentration of formaldeh yde was present. Propylene glycol, white spirit, and butyl acrylate may have or iginated from the heavy-bodied latex wall paint used in some of the adjoining rooms a few day s before. The source of the Texanol '" and formaldehyde was not found.
The concentration of ammonia was 2.5-3.2 mg/m' during the application . The concentrat ion decrea sed thereafter. The concentra tion of l -butanol increased during the work to a maximum of 3 mg/m ' and decreased thereafter. Butanol may ha ve been a contaminant in , eg, the raw materials. The con cent ration of but yl acrylat e increa sed during the appl ication to a maximum of 4. 2 mg/m ' . Then' the co ncentrati on decrea sed, and was 0.7 mg/m' the follow ing da y. The concentration of formaldehyde increased during the application from 0.16 to 0.53 mg/m '. This compound may have come from the formaldeh yde releaser (1-(3-chlorall yl)-tetraazaadamantan hydrochloride) or from the binder. The concentration of prop ylene glycol increased unexpectedly dur ing the appli cation from 1.2 to 9.8 mg/m'. Then it decreased to a steady concentration (2.4 mg/m') th e next da y. The concentration of Texanol'" increased during the application from 0.5 to 3.5 mg/m '. Then the co ncentra tion decreased to 1.5 mg/m ' the next day. A small increase at the end of the first day may be explained by th e amount contained in acrylic latex paint I (semi-glo ss). The concentration of white spirit increased durin g the application from 5.6 to 74.9 mg/m ' and then decreased to II mg/m ' the next da y.

Workplace 2
Repair work was being don e in wo rkplace 2. The walls and the woodwork had been painted years before , but no one knew the product types used .
The room was a sitting room in an apar tment with a total of five rooms . The sitt ing room had a ground area of 15.7 m' and a volume of 39.7 rn", which corresponds to 41 0,10 of the apartment. The sitting room was connected to the hall. The hall was connected to the bedroom , the kitchen, and the bathroom with doors. The measurement s were carri ed out in the sitting room on 25, 26 and 27 September 1984. The first da y, 4 I of sealing waterborne paint (for ceilings) was applied to the ceiling (0.10 11m' room , 0.25 11m' ceiling). Then 484 the walls were coat ed with 1.8 I of latex primer (micro disperse) (0.05 11m' room, 0.11 11m' wall). The second day the walls were painted with 3.5 I of latex wall paint (0.46/m ' room , 0.10 11m 2 wall) . The third day woodwork and a rad iator were painted with 0.85Iof acrylic latex paint II (semi-gloss) (0.02 11m' room). The room was ventilated through a draft channel (lOx 30 ern).
Stationary sampling was made in a corner 30 ern fro m the walls and a t a height of I m. The corner was chosen as it was as far as possible from the window.
The chronological data for th e mea surements are as follo ws: 25 September 1984 Figure 2 in the Air Sampling and Analysis section shows the measured concentrations of contaminants in the air.
The room was poorly ventilated through a draft channel. The temperature was between 19 and 23°C, and the humidity was normal (52 0J0 RH) before the application of the paints started. Before the application only formaldehyde was found in the air (0.07 mg/m').
The concentration of ammonia fluctuated with the work. The highest concentration (5 mg/m') was measured during the application of latex wall paint. The concentration of l-butanol fluctuated with the work. Normally 2 mg/m' was present during the work, and before and after application it was less than this concentration. Butyl acrylate was a common monomer in all four of the applied paints, but it was only found during and after the application of latex primer (micro disperse) and acrylic latex paint II (semi-gloss). In both cases, approximately I mg/m' was found. Butyl ether may have been a reaction by-product from the manufacture of 2-butoxyethanol. The highest measured concentration was 2.4 mg/m'. Decane was a component of white spirit. The small concentrations (up to I mg/m') measured the first day may have come from latex wall paint used in the kitchen. Diethylene glycol but yl ether was only a component of the sealing waterborne paint (for ceilings). The concentration increased to 5 mg/m' during the application . The next day, the concentration was still 5 mg/m ', and the third day a decrease to a little over 2 mg/m' was found. Dipropylene glycol methyl ether was a component of the sealing waterborne paint. The concentration increased during the application to a maximum of 36 mg/m '. The concentration decreased steadily to approximately 16 mg/m' the next day, and to approximately 4 mg/m' the third day. Ethylene glycol butyl ether was a component of the sealing waterborne paint. The concentration increased during application to a maximum of 48 mg/m'. The concentration decreased steadily to approximately 10 mg/m' the next day, and to 2 mg/m' the third day. Ethylene glycol phenyl ether was a component of the acrylic latex paint II (semigloss). This compound evaporated very slowly, and it was found at very low concentrations (0.3 mg/rn') hours after the application of the paint. Formaldehyde may have been released either from the binder or from the formaldehyde-releasing compound (l-(3-ehlorallyl)tetraazaadamantan hydrochloride) in the sealing waterborne paint or from the latex wall paint.
Propylene. glycol was a component of the acrylic latex paint II (semi-gloss). The concentration increased during the application to 10.5 mg/m'. The little amount measured in the morning may have come from the acrylic latex paint III (semi-gloss) used in small amounts. Texanol'P was found in the latex wall paint. The little amount found the first day may have come from this paint, applied to the cupboards in the kitchen. The application of latex wall paint in the sitting room resulted in an increasing concentration (up to 2.2 mg/m') . The next day the concentration was still around 2 mg/m' . Triethylamine was found in the sealing waterborne paint. The concentration increased during the application to a maximum of 6.1 mg/m'. Then it decreased to 3 mg/m' the next day and to 0.8 mg/m' the third day. This concentration is a minimum concentration. Undecane was a component of white spirit. White spirit may have come from the latex wall paint. The concentration increased during the application to more than 50 mg/m' . The next day , the concentration had decreased to 14 mg/m '.